The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill - Essay Example Systems to address construction project risk†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.5 a. Technology†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5 b. People†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 c. Planning†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.6 IV. Catastrophic failure fault tree†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦7 V. Discussion of fault tree†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..7 a. Reduce risks†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...8 b. Mitigate risks†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..8 c. Avoid risks†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 VI. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..9 VII. Appendix†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦..10 VIII. References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..11 Introduction The Deepwater Horizon disaster was triggered by failure of the sea-bed oil gusher to control the flow of oil following the 20th April 2010 blowout of the oil drilling rig. The incident, blamed on failure of the rig owner to rein in the warning signs and put in place adequate risk prevention and management programs, killed almost a dozen crew members and injured several others. The development then resulted in a massive leakage of oil into the sea, resulting in an unfathomable environmental disaster in the Gulf Sea. The catastrophic failure of the BP Oil drilling rig was generally the most dangerous ever in the history of offshore oil drilling projects. Sources of construction project risk a. Timeline On January 30th 2010, the Deepwater Horizon transferred its equipment to about 45 miles off the Louisiana coast in order to begin oil drilling operations at the Macondo well (Owens, 2012). In early April, an assessment was carried out to ascertain rig’s condition after Transocean Ltd., the chief operator the facility saw it wise to do so. On April 15, a cement job expert at the well-site travelled abroad to attend a conference on rig management techniques (Balaguer, 2010). A Halliburton’s employee specialized in designing cement job for plugging the well against spills, advised BP that the site needed 21 stabilizers to position the drill pipe at the centre, but BP superiors overruled his decision and directed the work to continue with only six centralizers in place. On April 18, Halliburton carried out a vital test on the cement that was set for use, but denied BP some of the results. Meanwhile the company advised BP that the well was at risk of leaks if the work proceeded with fewer than the earlier recommended 21 centralizers. On April 19, the drilling work was completed to the desirable depths. This paved way for installation of the casing and pumping of the cement to stabilize the rig. Whereas, the work was behind schedule by more than a month, finishing touches were done on 20th April. However, the well immediately failed, and triggered a blowout (Owens, 2012). b. Costs Transocean through Triton Asset Leasing Company was managing the rig. However, BP entered into a contract to use the rig for three years off the Louisiana coast. The contract was valued at $544 million, for the equipment only, with employees, supporting gear and other vessels costing

Nepals Participation In UN Peacekeeping

Nepals Participation In UN Peacekeeping Nepal has been taking part in UN peacekeeping missions since three years after it became a member of the UN, and has contributed numerous peacekeepers in multiple missions. Nepal commemorated 50 years of participation in UN peace support operations in 2008 and was the fourth largest troop contributor to UN peacekeeping missions in 2004 and fifth largest in 2009.  [1]  Nepal considers its contribution to UN peacekeeping operations as a tool for implementing Nepalese foreign policy, which is guided by the principles of UN Charter.  [2]   Historically, Nepals shift towards internalization was an effort to pursue foreign policy goals. The Nepalese Armys peacekeeping participation was part and parcel of that effort. The UN has provided an important forum for smaller countries like Nepal to pursue its national interests and exercise foreign policy with dignity and sovereignty.  [3]  It has also provided small countries with moral and physical security from aggression, interference, and encroachment.  [4]   Nepals major engagement in UN peacekeeping operations came during the second democratic period, 1990-2005. Nepal started sending troops under the provision of Chapter VII of UN Charter, when its troops participated in peace enforcement mission in Somalia in 1993. The Nepalese Army (NA) acquired some experience and professionalism by operating with other professional armies. Taking part in UN peacekeeping missions is also an opportunity to be operational in the field.  [5]  Before its involvement in counterinsurgency operations in Nepal in 2001, the NA had a very few opportunities to deploy its soldiers in the field to hone their skills. In addition, working with civilians during peacekeeping missions has considerably altered its approach to deal with different problems. However, from 1990 through the end of 2000 was a decade characterized by policy inconsistencies between the militarys internationalism and the governments internal orientation. The NA was solely focused on its international peacekeeping mission, while the political parties were entangled in domestic politics. There was a clear gap between the states approach and the functioning of one of the instrument of national power, the military. At the strategic level, Nepal lacked a coherent policy that would allow it to institutionalize the experience gained in international missions. Even after political change of 2005, this trend seems unceasing. My effort in this paper would be to analyze this divergence in Nepal. Before dwell upon the core issue, I attempt to give a brief account of the Nepalese peacekeeping participation in different political scenarios. Nepalese Participation in UN Peacekeeping Missions in Different Periods After becoming a member of the UN in 1955, Nepal participated in the 1958 peacekeeping mission in Lebanon, UNOGIL. Nepal has since contributed to UN missions in the Middle East, Africa, Europe and the Caribbean. The first Nepalese battalion-sized contingent, the Purano Gorakh Battalion, was deployed in Egypt with UNEF II in 1974. Throughout the whole Panchayat period, the NA participated in six different peacekeeping missions.  [6]  Nepalese peacekeepers have since made major contributions. There was a surge in NA participation in peacekeeping missions after the establishment of multiparty democracy and constitutional monarchy in 1990.  [7]  The establishment of a multiparty democratic system in Nepal was a result of the worldwide third wave of democratization. Other parts of the world saw similar political agitation, conflict and transformation. During this period, the majority of NA troops were deployed in peace enforcement and multidimensional peacekeeping operations in wh ich internal armed conflicts constituted the major problems. When the Maoists launched an armed struggle against the government, the NA faced a challenge to continue participating in peacekeeping missions. However, with the gradual increase in the size of the NA after its involvement in counterinsurgency operations, participation in peacekeeping operations was no longer hindered. Nepal has taken part in peacekeeping missions in various conflict zones, and some of the NAs high ranking officers have filled key appointments in peacekeeping missions. Not only various force commanders and high-ranking officials who directly monitor and supervise international peacekeeping in the field say that the NAs mission performance is commendable, but also UN Secretary General has praised Nepalese peacekeepers.  [8]  Its peacekeeping contributions allowed Nepal to become an organizational committee member of the UN Peace Building Commission for 2008/2009 in the category of troop-contributing countries.  [9]   As of May 2010, Nepal has contributed 76,610 troops in 35 missions around the globe, and at present, the NA has deployed more than 4,420 peacekeepers in 12 different missions in the capacity of military observers, military liaison officers, staff officers in mission headquarters, and as contingent members. The government of Nepal has signed to make 5,000 troops available, as and when requested, to the UN Standby Arrangement System (UNSAS).  [10]   There has been no change in the trend of Nepalese peacekeeping participation since its first involvement. However, Nepal faces some challenges in peacekeeping. Apart from some logistical and management difficulties, allegations of human rights violations are also causing some problems in recent years.  [11]  Despite these problems, peacekeeping participation has been continuing. The interim government led by the Nepali Congress party, the Maoist-led government, and the CPN (UML) government all emphasized and praised the Nepals peacekeeping participation wholeheartedly. Most NA members have participated in a UN peacekeeping mission at least once in their military career. After serving for a few years in the army, almost all NA officers participate in UN peacekeeping missions more than once. Participating in UN peacekeeping is an opportunity for professional enhancement for many Nepalese soldiers. Apart from gaining experience, Nepalese Army personnel also receive monetary benefits that help raise their living standards and keep them motivated during peacekeeping activities and in their own country. The UN allowance is four to eight times higher than a standard salary in Nepal. At the institutional level, economic benefits from peacekeeping have become an important source for the welfare fund. At national level it has significantly contributed to national economy and foreign currency deposit. This shows that peacekeeping missions have become the NAs one of the major roles.  [12]  The Nepalese Armys uninterrupted participation in peacekeeping miss ions during two major political revolutions in 1990 and 2006 and during its active involvement in counterinsurgency operations indicate that the NA has been transforming into a peacekeeper military as described by Paul Shemella.  [13]   In its many years of UN peacekeeping missions, Nepal has undergone through various experiences and evolution processes. The concept of peacekeeping missions emerged from the concept of collective security founded in the concept of collective defense that seeks to form alliances against any state which commits an act of aggression. During the Cold War, peacekeeping was limited to interposing troops between belligerent parties, supervising and verifying cease-fires, and observing, monitoring, and reporting. Peacekeeping duties were limited to maintaining the status quo, and emphasis was given on impartiality and minimum use of the force, in which neutral countries like Nepal, rather than the permanent members of the UN Security Council, played a crucial role.  [14]  These missions were mandated by Chapter VI of UN charter. Nepal contributed peacekeepers to missions under Chapter VI. The mere presence of blue helmets was enough to restrain the conflicting parties from further hostil ities. Non-enforcement was the norm of traditional peacekeeping. Parties were deterred from relying on force; deployment of peacekeepers began after fighting halted; peacekeepers used to create buffers without seizing territory; and rather than taking territory, peacekeepers aimed to restore order or defend the territory. During those days national contingents did not have to make their own logistical arrangements, as the Wet Lease provision provided everything from toilet paper to tanks. Such arrangements made UN peacekeeping participation less challenging to developing countries like Nepal. Government and armed forces peacekeeping responsibilities were limited to making political or operational decisions to participate in particular missions. The nature of conflict changed with the end of the Cold War, requiring a new approach to peacekeeping missions and the advent of the second and third generations of peacekeeping missions.  [15]  The new multidimensional peacekeeping operations focused on facilitating political processes; creating a secure and stable environment and strengthening state security apparatus; and providing a framework for ensuring that all UN and other actors pursue their activities with close civil and military cooperation as the key to success. Although Nepal participates in most of the multidimensional peacekeeping missions, the lack of civilian participation in the Nepalese Armys peacekeeping efforts has impeded the most needed changes in the present context of multi-dimensional peacekeeping efforts. The government treats Nepalese peacekeeping participation as the sole prerogative of the NA, showing a lack of enthusiasm to coordinate and supervise these activities. The Ministry of Defense and Ministry of Foreign Affairs have not been active enough in managing peacekeeping efforts. The process of selecting, training, equipping, projecting and maintaining peacekeepers in conflict zones has not been very effective in the changing context.  [16]  This is one of the reasons why, despite long and successful involvement in international missions and interactions with other professional armed forces, the NA could not become as efficient as it should have been. The inability to bring prompt synergic effect of peacekeeping and diplomatic efforts on the recent allegation of cholera outbreak in Haiti may have long term implications on Nepalese peacekeeping. These problems can cause a great setback in peacekeeping efforts by tarnishing the image of Nepal and the NA. The inability to demonstrate the desirable competence of civilian and military institutions has resulted in inadequate performances in diplomatic as well as operational aspects of peacekeeping.  [17]  Also, lacking a symbiotic relationship between the military and civilians with regard to peacekeeping involvement, foreign policy and security, Nepal has not been able to achieve maximum output. Foreign Policy Aspects of the Nepalese Peacekeeping The Interim Constitution of Nepal (2007) states, the Foreign Policy of Nepal shall be guided by the principles of UN Charter, nonalignment, the Panchasheel, International law and the norms of world peace.  [18]  The previous Nepalese constitution, the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal (1990), also states that the UN Charter shall be one of the five guiding principles of Nepalese foreign policy.  [19]  The Ministry of Foreign Affairs claims that Nepal has consistently supported UN efforts to maintain peace and security by its continued participation in the UN.  [20]   The first democratic period from 1950 through 1960 was a time of political upheaval and transformation in Nepal. This was also the period of establishing national identity and preserving national integrity and sovereignty. The political parties and leaders considered the UN to be the protector and the guarantor of national identity, integrity, independence and sovereignty.  [21]  Thus, the decision to participate in UN peacekeeping missions in 1958 was a crucial one, a watershed moment in Nepalese foreign policy. When Nepal sought UN membership in 1949, the Soviet Union raised the question of Nepalese sovereignty. Nonetheless, Nepal became a UN member in 1955.  [22]  The fluid domestic, regional and international political situation made Nepals survival as a nation state of primary importance during 1950s and 1960s. In an address to the 15th Session of the UN General Assembly, Prime Minister Bisheswar Prasad Koirala said: The foreign policy of Nepal is wholly inspired by the purposes and principles of UN. We regard UN not only as a bulwark of our independence and security, but also as the protector of our rights and freedomà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦We believe in the independent exercise of our judgment in considering international issuesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦While we welcome and are grateful for the help that is being given to us by friendly governments-those of India, the United States, China, the USSR, the United Kingdom and others-as well as by UN, we do not want any country to tell us how we should think, or how we should conduct our internal affairs.  [23]   After the Rana rule and until 1960, the various governments in Nepal had different foreign policy preferences.  [24]  But the king wanted to have a balanced relationship between the two giant neighbors and to maintain the sovereignty of Nepal. While the king was searching for opportunities, he found that participating in international peacekeeping missions under the aegis of the UN was the best way to retain sovereignty and national independence. From 1961 through 1971, King Mahendra played a key role in shaping and implementing foreign policy, seeking to achieve three main objectives: maximization, diversification and mobilization. He first tried to expand the playing field of foreign policy by exploiting the preferences and the clash of interests between India, China and other major powers. Then he sought to go beyond a limited reliance on a few resources. Finally, he utilized Nepals active participation in international forums like UN and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) to pressure and mobilize regional and international powers in Nepals favor.  [25]   To utilize peacekeeping participation as a tool to protect Nepals sovereignty, the king dovetailed the armys peacekeeping efforts with countrys foreign policy objectives, adopting an internationalist approach to foreign policy.  [26]  This internationalist approach produced a synergic outcome by effectively utilizing the NAs peacekeeping participation to search for Nepals space in international forums. The internationalism came to fruition when Nepal was chosen for important responsibilities in the UN. For instance, Nepal led the Commission of Investigation into the Conditions and Circumstances resulting in the tragic death of then Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjold, who was killed in a plane crash at Ndola in Lusaka in 1961.  [27]  The internationalist approach also helped Nepal to become a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council in 1969-70 and in 1988-89 by an overwhelming majority. Nepals Zone of Peace Proposal, based on Panchasheel, was a reflection of Nepals aspi ration to achieve and maintain its sovereignty, integrity and independence without interference from neighboring countries.  [28]  A total of 116 countries supported the proposal, including four permanent members of the UN Security Council. Additionally, this approach helped Nepal to project its image to the international community and to maintain its sovereignty, independence and national integrity. The outcome of the internationalist approach during 1970s and 1980s was positive and significant.  [29]  But the democratic government formed after 1990 could not formulate any new policy or vision for employing the army in peacekeeping missions, nor did it wholeheartedly continue existing policies. Thus the internationalist approach became dormant. The NAs profound contribution to UN peacekeeping missions could not be fully utilized to support foreign policy objectives and national interests. The Ministry of Defense and Ministry of Foreign Affairs also kept a low profile. Without a dedicated defense minister and without the Ministry playing an effective role in peacekeeping activities, peacekeeping remained solely the armys private domain. Since political attention to the internationalist approach was not sufficient, the NAs participation in UN peacekeeping missions continued without meaningful political-diplomatic congruity.  [30]  This resulted in diplomatic setbacks. For instance, by eliminating Nepal, Indonesia was elected as the UN Security Councils non-permanent member for a two years term starting in January 2007.  [31]  There could be many reasons for this failure including the weakening of Nepali diplomacy on various fronts. However, some posit that it also points to the ineffectiveness of recent Nepalese peacekeeping initiatives. Chiran Thapa writes, Despite Nepals contribution to numerous UN led peace operations, the rejection of Nepals candidacy by an overwhelming majority at the General Assembly clearly suggests that the international community deems Nepal as less capable of serving global security interests.  [32]  In the face of Nepals widely lauded participation in peacekeeping, why Nepal is less capable in international forums is a serious issue. Conclusion Over fifty years, the NAs participation in UN peacekeeping has been remarkable. Although Nepals first democratic period (1950-1960) was full of chaos, the political forces in the country realized the necessity of taking an internationalist approach. Therefore, this period was a watershed in Nepals peacekeeping participation as well as its approach to foreign policy. Although an authoritative regime, the Panchayat period was an extension and consolidation of the same policies with enhanced participation. The positive outcome of the peacekeeping effort was seen during the 1970s and 1980s. After the reestablishment of democracy in 1990, Nepalese peacekeeping efforts increased tremendously, but foreign policy did not go along the peacekeeping contribution. The democratic forces could not fill in the authoritative vacuum created by the political change between the two instruments of national power, military and diplomacy. Despite some shortcomings, Nepals performance in peacekeeping missi ons has been very successful and widely acclaimed. Nepal could have benefitted highly, both diplomatically and politically, but did not. Nepals peacekeeping participation is being continued in the same pace even after the establishment of republic system. Despite many political ups and downs and changes in political system, there is no difference in opinion in Nepal about its participation in peacekeeping operations. This clearly indicates that there is a consensus among the Nepalese political parties that peacekeeping participation contributes to Nepals vital interests. Therefore, the time has come to reassess the gap between the Nepalese peacekeeping participation and foreign policy goal and rectify existing inconsistencies and digressions before it becomes too late.

Arousal Essay -- essays research papers

Discussion: Arousal is an integral element that is needed when preparing ones-self for sporting competition ( or practice for that matter). According to Weinberg and Gould, the athlete must become aware of his or her psychologigal states before they can control any thoughts or feelings they may have. This means when preparing for competition it is important to create an arousal state that is indicative of the competition you are competeing in and be aware of that state in order to set yourself up psychologically to compete. The athlete must energize him/herself when feelin flat and be aware of what he or she is doing in order to enhance his/her sport performance. With that said, if arousal levels are too high then sport performance can be hindered due to the athletes attention be focused on more than just the competition.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Anxiety is a pshychological state that, if uncontrolled, can hinder a performance greatly. Individuals must be able to cope with this anxiety in a positive mannner so that it doesn’t consume them and cause catastrophic results. Anxiety as a form of arousal is beneficial if kept in check because it make the athlete aware of what is about to transpire.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When dealing with arousal it is important to understand the theories behind it. The Drive Theory states that â€Å"as an individuals arousal or state anxiety inreases ,so too does his or her performance†. The Inverted - U Hypothesis states if arousal is too...

Prison Treatments Laws in New York State Essay

Michael E. Deutsch, Dennis Cunningham and Elizabeth M. Fink †Twenty Years Later — Attica Civil Rights Case Finally Cleared for Trial† Social Justice, Vol. 18, No. 3 (45), Attica: 1971—1991 A Commemorative Issue (Fall 1991), pp. 13-25 This is a journal uses the commissioner, the director of the correctional, Russel Osward as a center role to recall the Attica Riot, condemning his failure of management of the prison regime and the inhumane assault he had set to end up the uprising. The government had covered the facts of violent assault of the riot for years, but it had been dug out by the protest of the riot survivors 20 years after the riot, and they finally won the negotiations and gained their civil rights. Quotations can be cited for discussing how the negotiation had gone through. It also provides me some background information of the riot. It also gives a sense of what kind of civil rights had been violated and what had been brought back. I can use thes e rights as reference to seek changes of the State laws. Vicky Munro-Bjorklund â€Å"Popular Cultural Images of Criminals and Prisoners since Attica† Social Justice, Vol. 18, No. 3 (45), Attica: 1971—1991 A Commemorative Issue (Fall 1991), pp. 48-70 This journal focuses on the popular culture images that been shaped after the Attica Riot. It argues that the misunderstanding of the prisoner had been changed since the uprising, and media is also a force that pushes the prisons into reform. Because of stereotype, or the popular cultural images of the prisoners, no one had paid that much attention to the prisoners before the increasing exposure of the real â€Å"prisoners’ life† after the Attica Riot. The description of the popular cultural images of the prisoners in Attica is really a good resource to use. This resource is mainly a statement of the prisoners’ image. I do not need to describe the change of the images because I am focusing on the law changes, so nothing will be quoted, but it makes me think in a new way: The affection of exposure from the public or social media. George Edwards, â€Å"Foreword: Penitentiaries Produce No Penitents† forward-penitentiaries produce no penitents, 63 J. Crim. L. Criminology& Police Scl. 159(1972): 154-161   This journal focused on how the social media have done to help the colored people inside the US penal system by using the example of the media affection of the Attica Riot. It focuses on and the cultural images that shape the stereotype of the black people so that they are isolated from â€Å"us†. The prisoners’ lives in the prisons have become more transparent through the social media after the Attica Riot when the social media have paid attention to them and cover more about them. Social media is condemning the brutal treatment to the prisoners and the injustice of the sentence through different ways. This paper is searched after the previous one, it is a good resource for seeing how the social media had pushed the State to change their correctional method and give back prisoners’ civil rights. Willi The Naturalization Act of 1790 am L. Wilbanks The report of the commission on Attica, 37 Fed. Probation 3 (1973): 3-5 This is a prime summery of the national commission report of the Attica Riot published on September 13,1972. It briefly summarized and explained what is the Attica Riot, recorded the cause of it, reported the negotiation of it, and analyzed the assault and the aftermath of it. The main highlight of the riot from the report is that it happened at a time when the prison was about to reform for better, and the violent assault was because the prison inmate was asking for general pardon, but the government refused so, yet the result was still inhumane. This report is brief and comprehensive; it is providing background information for the public to get the general idea of the riot. Part of it can be quoted for a prof of inhumane treatment after the uprising. Gerald Benjamin and Stephen P. Rappaport, Attica and Prison Reform, Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science, Vol. 31, No. 3, Governing New York State: The Rockefeller Years (May, 1974), pp. 200-213 This journal focuses on reporting the details of the negotiation and the assault of the Attica Riot. Informing us assault is because of the failure of the negotiation. This journal also mentioned that the riot happened when the reform was just about to be taken into practice. After the riot, the reform began, including the facilities change and the treatment changes. Changes are based on the fund from federal and the State, though something still needs to be change, it was already a big step. It is also showing some significant changes such as the change in the employment of the facilities from all whites to Latinos, the shortened time of locking. Though this journal is really detail, I need to quote the changes of laws rather than just physical changes in this piece. Angela Y. Davis: Are Prisons Obsolete? Seven Stories Press New York, 2003: 10-19, 84-104 Chapter 1 introduces us with an idea of prison reform, which gains the majority supports of the public and it is also the reason for the Attica Riot. It also reveals the idea that not many people outside the prison are willing to think about the life inside the prison, which is going to be a support of why I said that there is not that much attention had been paid for prison treatment. Chapter 5 tells us how a mass of private companies and industries are gaining a lot of profit from the prisoners so that prisoners are not gaining what they are supposed to be gained. Both chapters are supporting the idea of why prisons should be paid attention and be reformed. Thought the industrial complex of the prison is written recently rather than the immediate fact, I would use them as reference of things that haven’t been improved after the riot. Bruce Burgett and Glenn Hendler, Keywords for American Cultural Studies, New York University Press, 2007: 37-42 This piece gives readers a brief history from the ancient Greek to now of how Citizenship has come to its status in the United State. The civil rights have been violated by the sovereignty, but finally came to equality through the push of institutions, religions, as well as civil movements. This piece also introduces us that how the technology and transportations are important to a new understanding of citizenship. This piece is important for analyzing the prison rights because I am writing through the prospect that prison inmates are also citizens, that they should have the same rights as those normal citizens, but prisoners’ rights are somehow always been valid or even ignored by the U.S. penal system. This article helps to define the citizen in my paper. Jael Silliman and Anannya Bhattacharjee, Policing the National Body Sex, Race, and Criminalization, South End Press Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2002: 1-48 Chapter one gives us a general idea on how the US penal apparatus has been enforced by the participation of multiple â€Å"relevant† institutions. It is showing audiences how those institutional officers themselves are offending the laws but still act as a law executive, and how they use the name of immigration law to violate the rights, especially the rights of the women with colors, they offence their bodies, and use them to incarcerate colored men. This helps to analysis the female prison treatments in recent time. Though it is a good example to show the violation of the civil rights but it might be a little different from the topic that I am writing about because it is mainly focused on the recent time and the immigration laws. Dylan Rodriguez, Forced Passages, Imprisoned Radical Intellectuals and the U.S. Prison Regime, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, London, 2006 This chapter focuses on the formation of the key word: The War. Though the war is supposedly be the conflict between states, the writer tells readers that the U.S. government is using the war zone as a way to control the citizens. It talks about how the power is contributed through the use of the prison regime. I would like to quote the history of the prison regime to inform that the prison today has a slavery background and that is what makes the rights of prisoners been blurred so reasonably. U.S. Naturalization Act of 1790, The Transcript of 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Abolition of Slavery (1865) The naturalization act is the fundamental act to the U.S. citizens. It indicated that free white of good moral character that had lived in the U.S. for two years and swore allegiance. It can be used as a historical accordant to the descriptions of the history of the prison regime. The 13th amendment establishes birthright of citizenship due process and equal protection, formally extends citizenship to newly freed, black men. Both of these laws can be use as track of the citizenship as proves of the inequality of the civil laws roots. Abstract Citizenship refers to the link between state and person who lives in. Citizens by broad should be within the link and should be someone who lives in the sate. Prisoners as a special type of citizen are supposed to have the same civil rights and be protected by the same laws, yet their circumstances put them into a situation where their rights are violated constantly with or without justice. Prison treatments in the US, can been seen as a significant example of the violation of the prisoners’ civil rights. It has never been paid attentions until the four-day uprising in the Attica Correctional Facility burst out in 1971. Attica Riot was the most violent riot in the entire U.S. history. Through out the uprising, many inhumane treatments of the prisoners have been revealed through the exposure of the social media. As a curiosity on the affects of prison uprisings on the New York State government, this paper is going to discover some significant changes that had been made by the New York State immediately after the riot through the aftermath negotiation of the Attica riot to indicate that the prisoner rights are still not have been treated rightly.

Confessions of an Application Reader Essay

A HIGHLY qualified student, with a 3. 95 unweighted grade point average and 2300 on the SAT, was not among the top-ranked engineering applicants to the University of California, Berkeley. He had perfect 800s on his subject tests in math and chemistry, a score of 5 on five Advanced Placement exams, musical talent and, in one of two personal statements, had written a loving tribute to his parents, who had emigrated from India. Enlarge This Image Brian Cronin for The New York Times Related Go to Education Life  » Enlarge This Image Peg Skorpinski Sather Gate, a literal and symbolic portal on Berkeley’s campus. Readers’ Comments Readers shared their thoughts on this article. Read All Comments (250)  » Why was he not top-ranked by the â€Å"world’s premier public university,† as Berkeley calls itself? Perhaps others had perfect grades and scores? They did indeed. Were they ranked higher? Not necessarily. What kind of student was ranked higher? Every case is different. The reason our budding engineer was a 2 on a 1-to-5 scale (1 being highest) has to do with Berkeley’s holistic, or comprehensive, review, an admissions policy adopted by most selective colleges and universities. In holistic review, institutions look beyond grades and scores to determine academic potential, drive and leadership abilities. Apparently, our Indian-American student needed more extracurricular activities and engineering awards to be ranked a 1. Now consider a second engineering applicant, a Mexican-American student with a moving, well-written essay but a 3. 4 G. P. A. and SATs below 1800. His school offered no A. P. He competed in track when not at his after-school job, working the fields with his parents. His score? 2. 5. Both students were among â€Å"typical† applicants used as norms to train application readers like myself. And their different credentials yet remarkably close rankings illustrate the challenges, the ambiguities and the agenda of admissions at a major public research university in a post-affirmative-action world. WHILE teaching ethics at the University of San Francisco, I signed on as an â€Å"external reader† at Berkeley for the fall 2011 admissions cycle. I was one of about 70 outside readers — some high school counselors, some private admissions consultants — who helped rank the nearly 53,000 applications that year, giving each about eight minutes of attention. An applicant scoring a 4 or 5 was probably going to be disappointed; a 3 might be deferred to a January entry; students with a 1, 2 or 2. 5 went to the top of the pile, but that didn’t mean they were in. Berkeley might accept 21 percent of freshman applicants over all but only 12 percent in engineering. My job was to help sort the pool. We were to assess each piece of information — grades, courses, standardized test scores, activities, leadership potential and character — in an additive fashion, looking for ways to advance the student to the next level, as opposed to counting any factor as a negative. External readers are only the first read. Every one of our applications was scored by an experienced lead reader before being passed on to an inner committee of admissions officers for the selection phase. My new position required two days of intensive training at the Berkeley Alumni House as well as eight three-hour norming sessions. There, we practiced ranking under the supervision of lead readers and admissions officers to ensure our decisions conformed to the criteria outlined by the admissions office, with the intent of giving applicants as close to equal treatment as possible. The process, however, turned out very differently. In principle, a broader examination of candidates is a great idea; some might say it is an ethical imperative to look at the â€Å"bigger picture† of an applicant’s life, as our mission was described. Considering the bigger picture has aided Berkeley’s pursuit of diversity after Proposition 209, which in 1996 amended California’s constitution to prohibit consideration of race, ethnicity or gender in admissions to public institutions. In Fisher v.  the University of Texas, the Supreme Court, too, endorsed race-neutral processes aimed at promoting educational diversity and, on throwing the case back to lower courts, challenged public institutions to justify race as a factor in the holistic process. In practice, holistic admissions raises many questions about who gets selected, how and why. I could see the fundamental unevenness in this process both in the norming Webinars and when alone in a dark room at home with my Berkeley-issued netbook, reading assigned applications away from enormously curious family members. First and foremost, the process is confusingly subjective, despite all the objective criteria I was trained to examine. In norming sessions, I remember how lead readers would raise a candidate’s ranking because he or she â€Å"helped build the class. † I never quite grasped how to build a class of freshmen from California — the priority, it was explained in the first day’s pep talk — while seeming to prize the high-paying out-of-state students who are so attractive during times of a growing budget gap. (A special team handled international applications. ) In one norming session, puzzled readers questioned why a student who resembled a throng of applicants and had only a 3. 5 G. P. A. should rank so highly. Could it be because he was a nonresident and had wealthy parents? (He had taken one of the expensive volunteer trips to Africa that we were told should not impress us. ) Income, an optional item on the application, would appear on the very first screen we saw, along with applicant name, address and family information. We also saw the high school’s state performance ranking. All this can be revealing. Admissions officials were careful not to mention gender, ethnicity and race during our training sessions. Norming examples were our guide. Privately, I asked an officer point-blank: â€Å"What are we doing about race? † She nodded sympathetically at my confusion but warned that it would be illegal to consider: we’re looking at — again, that phrase — the â€Å"bigger picture† of the applicant’s life. After the next training session, when I asked about an Asian student who I thought was a 2 but had only received a 3, the officer noted: â€Å"Oh, you’ll get a lot of them. † She said the same when I asked why a low-income student with top grades and scores, and who had served in the Israeli army, was a 3. Which them? I had wondered. Did she mean I’d see a lot of 4. 0 G. P. A. ’s, or a lot of applicants whose bigger picture would fail to advance them, or a lot of Jewish and Asian applicants (Berkeley is 43 percent Asian, 11 percent Latino and 3 percent black)? The idea behind multiple readers is to prevent any single reader from making an outlier decision. And some of the rankings I gave actual applicants were overturned up the reading hierarchy. I received an e-mail from the assistant director suggesting I was not with the program: â€Å"You’ve got 15 outlier, which is quite a lot. Mainly you gave 4’s and the final scores were 2’s and 2. 5’s. † As I continued reading, I should keep an eye on the â€Å"percentile report on the e-viewer† and adjust my rankings accordingly. In a second e-mail, I was told I needed more 1’s and referrals. A referral is a flag that a student’s grades and scores do not make the cut but the application merits a special read because of â€Å"stressors† — socioeconomic disadvantages that admissions offices can use to increase diversity. Officially, like all readers, I was to exclude minority background from my consideration. I was simply to notice whether the student came from a non-English-speaking household. I was not told what to do with this information — except that it may be a stressor if the personal statement revealed the student was having trouble adjusting to coursework in English. In such a case, I could refer the applicant for a special read. Why did I hear so many times from the assistant director? I think I got lost in the unspoken directives. Some things can’t be spelled out, but they have to be known. Application readers must simply pick it up by osmosis, so that the process of detecting objective factors of disadvantage becomes tricky. It’s an extreme version of the American non-conversation about race. I scoured applications for stressors. To better understand stressors, I was trained to look for the â€Å"helpful† personal statement that elevates a candidate. Here I encountered through-the-looking-glass moments: an inspiring account of achievements may be less â€Å"helpful† than a report of the hardships that prevented the student from achieving better grades, test scores and honors. Should I value consistent excellence or better results at the end of a personal struggle? I applied both, depending on race. An underrepresented minority could be the phoenix, I decided. We were not to hold a lack of Advanced Placement courses against applicants. Highest attention was to be paid to the unweighted G. P. A. , as schools in low-income neighborhoods may not offer A. P. courses, which are given more weight in G. P. A. calculation. Yet readers also want to know if a student has taken challenging courses, and will consider A. P. ’s along with key college-prep subjects, known as a-g courses, required by the U. C. system. Even such objective information was open to interpretation. During training Webinars, we argued over transcripts. I scribbled this exchange in my notes: A reader ranks an applicant low because she sees an â€Å"overcount† in the student’s a-g courses. She thinks the courses were miscounted or perhaps counted higher than they should have been. Another reader sees an undercount and charges the first reader with â€Å"trying to cut this girl down. † The lead reader corrects: â€Å"We’re not here to cut down a student. † We’re here to find factors that advance the student to a higher ranking. Another reader thinks the student is â€Å"good† but we have so many of â€Å"these kids. † She doesn’t see any leadership beyond the student’s own projects. Listening to these conversations, I had to wonder exactly how elite institutions define leadership. I was supposed to find this major criterion holistically in the application. Some students took leadership courses. Most often, it was demonstrated in extracurricular activities.

How to Collaboratively Write a Business Report with Colleagues

How to Collaboratively Write a Business Report with Colleagues Do you collaboratively write reports with colleagues? Do you find it hard to keep a sense of coherence across the report and unity in the work team? Group writing is a logical and wise report writing practice because it captures the expertise of the right people on a project team. However, writing by group can often result in a report that feels patched together with no coherent tone. It can often require revision after revision as multiple writers interject their comments. Worse, resentments can simmer when the writers see the writing they labored over changed and egos clash. Let's make this process easier and ensure a better outcome. There is an easy to implement approach for collaborative report writing that will ensure expertise and content is captured. And, the report will present a unified tone to the reader. This technique requires three steps. Step #1: Group works together to 1) analyze the purpose and audience of the report and 2) develop the content that audience needs. Create a concept map of the report organization and content. Also, decide on the best tool to convey the report. (A report is typically written in MS Word, PowerPoint, or Excel.) By far, the best technique to capture this is a content map. A content map is simply a visual representation of the substance of a report, with the inter-related components delineated. By creating a visual map, each contributor understands the report whole and can easily draft his or her section because the thinking and analysis work is done. Most importantly, it allows the group to agree on the substance of the report at the start of the report writing process. This is critical for two reasons: If you can't map the structure of a report, it will never be more clear when the structure is longer and written out. The group must complete the planning before diving into the writing. The editing process is often a bit contentious in collaborative writing. Every writer clings to words they labored over. Egos come into play. If changes are requested later on in the editing portion of writing the business report, you will be able to separate changes of substance from changes in language by reviewing the concept map. It will allow you to fine tune the actual edits needed. It is much easier to verify the substance of the report when it is front and center in a concept map. Here is an example of a concept map for a report summarizing the outcomes of a training course: Step #2 Each person writes his or her appropriate section of the report. In this example, if applied here at Instructional Solutions, I would ask our client care manager to write the section on course data since she would know it best. I would ask the instructor most involved in the course to write the section on course evaluations and participant writing since she worked directly with the training group. I would write the course summary section since I typically manage training projects and work directly with our client project manager. This writing strategy ensures that the most qualified person is writing their area of expertise. Additionally, it will be easy for the writers to draft their respective sections because they have a plan and visual map to tether them to that plan. They simply need to unfold the map, and write it out in the right tool (MS Word, PowerPoint, or Excel, as determined by the group discussion.) Step #3 One person combines the sections following the content map structure, and edits the report. This ensures the report has unified style and tone. I see so many "Frankenstein reports" that feel like it was patched together, instead of developed strategically. One person must own the report and have final approval on language and substance. That said, the final editor/writer has two responsibilities: He or she has final say on the language choices.I have seen so many conflicts when too many people are allowed to edit a report. Truly, I've seen resentment between co-workers erupt over a simple word choice. When this happens, the conflict usually isn't about the word choice. It's really about control. Don't open this Pandora's box. Assign editorial control to one person. Choose a strong writer. However, the final writer/editor must discuss any changes in substance with the section writer. At this point, if the group planned the report appropriately in Step #1, substance should not change during an edit. Therefore, any substance changes here are a danger sign that content was not well planned from the start or the editor is making strategic changes. The key to successful collaborative report writing is planning content as a group and capturing it in a concept map, letting the right staff write appropriate sections, and giving one person the task of editing the report. A group can write a very strong report, and stay happy! Learn how to master all aspects of report writing in our Report Writing Course.

French Revolution of 1789 - Timeline

French Revolution of 1789 - Timeline Our narrative history for this period begins here. 1789 January January 24: The Estates General is officially summoned; election details go out. Crucially, no one is really sure how it should be formed, leading to an argument over voting powers. January - May: The Third Estate politicises as cahiers are drawn up, political clubs form and discussion takes place both verbally and through pamphleteering. The middle class believe they have a voice and intend to use it. February February: Sieyes publishes What is the Third Estate? February - June: Elections to the Estates General. May May 5: The Estates General opens. There is still no decision on voting rights, and the third estate believe they should have more of a say. May 6: The Third Estate refuses to meet or verify their election as a separate chamber. June June 10: The Third Estate, now frequently called the Commons, gives an ultimatum to the other estates: join in a common verification or the Commons would go on alone. June 13: A few members of the First Estate (priests and clergy) join the Third. June 17: The National Assembly is proclaimed by the former Third Estate. June 20: The Tennis Court Oath taken; with the National Assemblys meeting place closed in preparation for a Royal Session, the deputies meet at a tennis court and swear not to disband until a constitution is established. June 23: The Royal Session opens; the King initially tells the estates to meet separately and introduces reforms; the deputies of the National Assembly ignore him. June 25: Members of the Second Estate begin to join the National Assembly. June 27: The king gives in and orders the three estates to unite as one; troops are called to the Paris area. Suddenly, there has been a constitutional revolution in France. Things would not stop here. July July 11: Necker is dismissed. July 12: Revolt begins in Paris, caused in part by Neckers dismissal and the fear of royal troops. July 14: The storming of the Bastille. Now the people of Paris, or the mob if you prefer, will start to direct the revolution and violence will result. July 15: Unable to rely on his army, the King gives in and orders troops to leave the Paris area. Louis does not want a civil war, when that might be all that would save his old powers. July 16: Necker is recalled. July - August: The Great Fear; mass panic across France as people fear a noble led backlash against their anti-feudal demonstrations. August August 4: Feudalism and privileges are abolished by the National Assembly in perhaps the most remarkable evening in Europes modern history. August 26: Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen published. September September 11: The King is granted a suspensive veto. October October 5-6: Journee of 5-6 October: the King and the National Assembly move to Paris at the behest of a Parisian mob. November November 2: Church property is nationalised. December December 12: Assignats are created. 1790 February February 13: Monastic vows banned. February 26: France divided into 83 departments. April April 17: Assignats accepted as currency. May May 21: Paris is divided into sections. June June 19: Nobility is abolished. July July 12: The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, a complete restructuring of the church in France. July 14: Feast of the Federation, a celebration to mark one year since the fall of the Bastille. August August 16: Parlements are abolished and the judiciary reorganised. September September 4: Necker resigns. November November 27: The Oath of the Clergy passed; all ecclesiastical office holders must swear an oath to the constitution. 1791 January January 4: Last date for clergy to have sworn the oath; over half refuse. April April 2: Mirabeau dies. April 13: The Pope condemns the Civil Constitution. April 18: The King is prevented from leaving Paris to spend Easter at Saint-Cloud. May May: Avignon is occupied by French forces. May 16: Self-Denying Decree: National Assembly deputies cannot be elected to the Legislative Assembly. June June 14: Le Chapelier Law stopping workers associations and strikes. June 20: Flight to Varennes; the King and Queen attempt to flee France but only get as far as Varennes. June 24: Cordelier organises a petition stating that liberty and royalty cannot co-exist. July 16: The Constituent Assembly declares that the king was the victim of an abduction plot. July 17: Massacre at the Champs de Mars, when National Guard open fire on republican demonstrators. August August 14: Slave rebellion begins in Saint-Domingue. August 27: Declaration of Pillnitz: Austria and Prussia threaten to take action in support of the French king. September September 13: The King accepts the new constitution. September 14: King swears the oath of allegiance to the new constitution. September 30: The National Assembly is dissolved. October October 1: The Legislative Assembly convenes. October 20: Brissots first calls for war against the à ©migrà ©s. November November 9: Decree against the à ©migrà ©s; if they do not return they will be considered traitors. November 12: The King vetoes the à ©migrà ©s decree. November 29: Decree against refractory priests; they will be considered suspects unless they take a civic oath. December December 14: Louis XVI requests the Elector of Trier disperse à ©migrà ©s or face military action. December 19: The King vetoes the decree against refractory priests. Back to Index Page 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

States That Allow People Convicted of Felonies to Vote

States That Allow People Convicted of Felonies to Vote The right to vote is considered one of the most sacred and fundamental tenets of American democracy, and even people convicted of felonies, the most serious crimes in the penal system, are allowed to vote in most states. Convicted felons are even allowed to vote from behind prison bars in some states. Those who support restoring voting rights to people convicted of felonies, after they complete their sentences and pay their debts to society, say it is improper to permanently strip them of the power to take part in elections. In Florida, a mid-term ballot initiative in 2018 restored voting rights to people convicted of felonies automatically after they have completed their sentences in full, including parole and probation. Voting rights were not restored for anyone convicted of murder or a felony sex act. Gov. Terry McAuliffe restored voting rights to tens of thousands of convicted felons on a case-by-case basis in 2016, after the states high court rejected his blanket order earlier in the year. I personally believe in the power of second chances and in the dignity and worth of every single human being. These individuals are gainfully employed. They send their children and their grandchildren to our schools. They shop at our grocery stores and they pay taxes. And I am not content to condemn them for eternity as inferior, second-class citizens, McAuliffe said. The Sentencing Project estimates that about 6 million people are not able to vote because of laws that temporarily or permanently ban people convicted of felonies from voting. The group notes that the laws affect people of color at far greater rates: One in 13 African Americans of voting age is disenfranchised, a rate more than four times greater than that of non-African Americans. Over 7.4 percent of the adult African American population is disenfranchised compared to 1.8 percent of the non-African American population. While felons are allowed to vote after theyve completed their sentences in most cases, the matter is left up to the states. Virginia, for example, is one of nine states in which people convicted of felonies receive the right to vote only by a specific action from the governor. Others automatically restore the right to vote after a person convicted of a felony serves time. The policies vary from state to state. Attorney Estelle H. Rogers, writing in a 2014 policy paper, said the various policies in reinstating voting rights creates too much confusion. Policies on felon re-enfranchisement are inconsistent across the 50 states and create confusion among former offenders who wish to regain the right to vote, as well as the officials charged with implementing the laws. The result is a network of misinformation that discourages some legally eligible voters from registering to vote and places undue restrictions on others during the registration process. On the other hand, former offenders who are not fully informed of their state’s restrictions may register and vote, and, in doing so, unwittingly commit a new crime, she wrote. Heres a look at which states do what, according to the National Conference of State Legislatures. States With No Ban on Voting for People Convicted of Felonies These two states allow those convicted of felonies to vote even while they serve their terms. The voters in these states never lose their rights. MaineVermont States That Ban People Convicted of Felonies From Voting While Incarcerated These states strip voting rights from people convicted of felonies while theyre serving out their terms but restore them automatically once they are out of prison. Washington, D.C.HawaiiIllinoisIndianaMarylandMassachusettsMichiganMontanaNew HampshireNorth DakotaOhioOregonPennsylvaniaRhode Island States That Restore Voting Rights to People Convicted of Felonies After Completion of Sentence These states restore voting rights to those convicted of felony crimes only after they have completed their entire sentences including prison term, parole, and probation, among other certain requirements. AlaskaArizonaArkansasCaliforniaColoradoConnecticutDelawareFloridaGeorgiaIdahoKansasLouisianaMinnesotaMissouriNebraskaNevadaNew JerseyNew MexicoNew YorkNorth CarolinaOklahomaSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaTennesseeTexasUtahWashingtonWest VirginiaWisconsinWyoming Some of these states have instituted a waiting period of several years before felons who have completed their sentences can apply to vote again. States Where the Governor Must Reinstate Voting Rights In these states, voting rights are not automatically restored and, in most cases, the governor must do it on a case-by-case basis. AlabamaArizona (repeat offenders)IowaKentuckyMississippiNevadaVirginiaWyoming Sources â€Å"Restoring Voting Rights for Former Felons,† Project Voteâ€Å"Felon Voting Rights.† National Conference of State LegislaturesStateline.orgFlorida Restores Voting Rights to More Than 1 Million Former Felons, CNBCThe Sentencing Project.

Assignment (Microeconomics) Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

(Microeconomics) - Assignment Example The fall in the prices of butter could also be due to the changes in the supply and demand as when the prices started to increase, more and more producers will be willing to supply the butter in the market thus driving down the prices and restoring the equilibrium in the market. Another possible explanation of the same can be found in the substitute goods as when the price of butter is increasing, the demand for the substitute product i.e. margarine may also be increasing. However, when the demand for margarine has started to decrease, the price of butter also fell. In perfectly competitive markets there are large number of sellers and buyers selling homogenous products. Further, everyone has the complete information about the market. In such a situation, the economic profit will eventually disappear because when marginal cost equals marginal revenue (equilibrium condition in the perfect markets) the economic profits will be zero. Further, since there are large number of sellers and buyers therefore if one producer charges higher, more sellers will come into the market and drive the profits down and eventually economic profit will disappear. Marginal principle states that profits will be maximized when marginal cost is equal to the marginal revenue. When marginal revenue is higher than the marginal cost, the producer will produce more units of goods and will eventually force the prices to come down to the level of marginal cost. Thus producer will decide the production of any good based on the marginal cost i.e. as long as it is lower than marginal revenue, firm will adjust its production to achieve until both are equal. Since average variable cost is greater than price, firm should shut down its production because it is not even recovering its average variable cost. The accountant’s statement is flawed in the sense that she is equating total

Jury System of UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Jury System of UK - Essay Example But considering the complexity of many trials today - especially with the advances made in forensic science and the complexity of many civil trials, severe doubts regarding the efficacy of the jury system have been made. First of all, it is correct to consider whether a jury can in fact be "objective", especially when there has been a lot of pretrial publicity. Many studies have documented adverse effects of pre-trial publicity on juror decision making (Linz & Penrod, 1992; Otto, Penrod & Dexter, 1994; Ogloff & Vidmar, 1994; Studebaker & Penrod, 1997). These studies point out that jurors do not exist in a vacuum and are likely to have some opinion of a well-known case before they enter the courtroom. In many ways this can be linked to the ideas of groupthink. Just as the jury may be influenced by what the public outside supposedly 'thinks' regarding a case - usually influenced by the media - so as a whole they may come to conclusions based upon a kind of consensus feeling rather than rational thought. This type of situation has been called "groupthink". Janis Irving has created a perhaps more sober definition in which she describes groupthink as "a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action" (Irving, 1972). There are various interpretations and analyses of the practical results of groupthink that have occurred over the years. In the original article in which the term groupthink was postulated, Whyte described group think in the following way: We are not talking about mere instinctive conformity - it is, after all, a perennial failing of all mankind. What we are talking about is a rationalized conformity - an open, articulate philosophy which holds that group values are not only expedient but right and good as well. (Whyte, 1952) (emphasis added) One way of improving jury decisions, and thus making them more reliable, would be to actively educate juries on the dangers of groupthink before a trial starts. Just as their knowledge of the case, predisposition towards certain verdicts, experience of this type of crime/action are often tested through the process of voir-dire, so juries could be taught in a short workshop on the problems of groupthink and how to avoid them before the trial begins. There are various interpretations and analyses of the practical results of groupthink that have occurred over the years. Some, such as McCauley (1987) have concentrated on some of the more ominous sides of the tendency in which individuals may be swayed into ways of behaving that they would not otherwise consider. For example, extreme cases of groupthink can often be found within various religious cults, sometimes leading to disastrous and tragic consequences such as the mass suicides at Jonestown or of the Heaven's Gate group. These are thankfully rare examples of an extreme example of groupthink in which what may be a powerful good is turned into a destructive negativity because of the pathological nature of those who are leading the groupthink. Other cases of groupthink have been found within organizations of some of the most intellectual and highly educated people (who would not be expected to be easy 'followers' as were the mostly uneducated

Personal ethics action plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Personal ethics action plan - Assignment Example Professionally, I am a committed Operations Manager. I believe in team work and enjoy multi-tasking. I participate actively in group discussions. I possess leadership skills and do my best to motivate my team to achieve organizational goals. I am a keen negotiator and make every effort to maintain a high standard of quality and timeliness in my work. I believe in taking responsibility for the work I take up and give my very best to the work on hand. I would like to develop a strong work – life balance, in order to stably manage my personal and professional aspirations. I believe I would need to develop my observational and problem – solving skills in order to become a more complete professional. I would like to see myself in a decision – making role in a few years from now. My aim is to be the Director of a Multi-national company. I hope to be a well – balanced individual, with a successful personal and professional life! 2. Definitions: Ethics are a set o f values and principles that help one distinguish right from wrong. Ethics are the rules of one’s personal behavior that are often based upon laws, organizational policies, social norms, family, religion, and/or personal needs, and may be subject to differing interpretations. There is an old saying: â€Å"What is popular is not always right; what is right is not always popular.† Ethics govern the way people behave and influence their decisions on the 'right thing' to do. Our personal values contribute to the strength of our ethics. I believe that personal ethics influence our general ‘code of conduct’ in society and follow a process of continuous development. Leadership is a virtue that determines one’s ability to organize, guide and socially influence a group of people, in the accomplishment of a common  goal. Innate leadership qualities often emerge at a time of necessity, but these skills are not possessed in equal measures by all. Leadership i s influenced by one’s traits, intelligence, behavior, charisma, sense of authority, power and general temperament. Within an institution, each leader adopts a unique approach and style of leadership, for example: Transformational leadership or Situational leadership and gathers followers gradually. An effective leader plays the role of a mentor who encourages his team to think independently and guides the team towards achieving the outlined objectives. ‘Service’ may be defined as one’s personal willingness and voluntary contribution to any activity that does not have any direct financial or material compensation. One who is engaged in ‘service’ possesses a giving attitude, is dependable and is readily available to perform the task. In service, one must have the ability to work well ‘with others’, ‘for others’ and sometimes, ‘on behalf of others’. ‘Service’ to any organization requires active participation and a willingness to take on difficult responsibilities. Above all, the individual must represent his institution and perform committee work without a complaint, in the best interest of the organization and community. ‘Character’ refers to the innate traits, qualities and tendencies of an individual to think and act in different situations (known or unknown) with honesty, integrity, authenticity and responsibility. The pillars of character include trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring attitude and a sense of citizenship. Character is developed

Discussion Question-Law class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Discussion Question-Law class - Essay Example The motorists whose papers are in order are allowed entry into the neighborhood. Nonetheless, no pedestrians are stopped for frisking. The United States Supreme Court in its responsibility, has failed to provide the guidance necessary to ensure that law enforcing officials, and local authorities, refrain from putting up checkpoints in high crime rate areas. These check points are illegal because they invade people’s privacy that is protected by the fourth amendment of the constitution. The failure of the appellate court has led to the continuation of this practice. Soon enough, it may become a routine in most U.S cities. However, with proper guidance, this can be stopped and the checkpoints will be illegal. In the case, Illinois V Lidster; the Supreme Court was facing a dilemma once again regarding check points. However, this time around authorities were not stopping vehicles in an attempt to curb crime rates but were doing so to interrogate motorists about a driver who had caused an accident (hit-and-run driver) and was at large. Joseph Pytel was the victim. He had been hit by a car when he was riding his bike. The driver of the car that hit him did not stop to identify himself hence the checkpoints were put in place. Police tried locating the driver, but after two days, their attempts were futile. They then decided to erect the check points to obtain more information from motorists. Later on Robert Lidster, a random motorist who had no knowledge at all about the accident came to the check point and was asked to stop. He did stop and was questioned briefly. However, he got fed up and started to drive away. In the process, he nearly hit a police officer. His car was swerving. The police officer noted Lidster’s erratic driving and asked for his license and registration. He was put under sobriety tests, which he did not pass. Subsequently, he was arrested for driving under the influence. The jury at the trial courts found Robert Lidster guilty

The Smartphone Industry Analysis 2012 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Smartphone Industry Analysis 2012 - Essay Example (Cromar, 2010) The smartphone market is characterized by perpetual innovation and constant new product development. No one company has considerable market share so all the companies are constantly evolving technology in order to remain competitive and not to be driven out. (Brownlow, 2012) Smartphones and tablets have very short product life-cycle due to constant improvement in technology, aggressive pricing and rapid imitation. The barriers to entry in this industry are very high due to patents, high start-up cost, regulations and economies of scale. In the smartphone industry there are many drivers which deliver success and in order to stay in business and maximize value for the company it is important to know what factors guide the company towards excellence. The smartphone industry is very fleeting, therefore companies need to be on their feet and constant research and development is needed to come up with the most innovative features that would appeal to consumers. This should b e in line with the market demand, but innovation is a key competitive force in the smart phone industry. Secondly, the product needs to be reliable and should deliver on its promises. Having a reasonable battery life is important along with good reception. This would make the consumer brand loyal if their expectations are met. Also, good customer support service is mandatory to be competitive. Thirdly, the product created needs to expandable such that it allows third party applications to run and is not very restrictive in nature. Timely software updates also reinforce a brand’s image. Another competitive force would be that the product should be user friendly, and the interface should be designed in order to facilitate consumers and should not be time consuming. Lastly for a company to remain competitive they should have great financial capability in order to respond to the fleeting market demand and have the finance for product development shifts, marketing and acquisitions as well. (Gartner, 2010) One of the best ways of evaluating the attractiveness of an industry and gauging its performance is through the Michael Porter's five force model. This model ensures that a holistic analysis is performed which considers all the possible threats and provides a true picture of the external environment of an industry. The industry according to this model is quite profitable as only two threats are strong and can be removed via good coordination. The smartphone industry is marked with the threat of rival sellers. All the major competitors have pretty much the same strategy and use innovation to excel and make promising products. Also, these companies are financially strong and stable and have immense budgets for promotional campaigns and intense research and development. Another common feature of this industry is the greater ability for acquisitions which dirty dig the share quickly off the android. Because the industry is progressing at a fast rate, some shift ing in market share without long term results can exist. (Analysys Mason, 2012) The threat of new entrants is moderate because the barriers to entry are many. The global distribution of technology is limited to the leading technology companies and they have patented their hall of fame products. The only

Viral Marketing Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 11250 words

Viral Marketing - Thesis Example This essay discusses how this kind of marketing is theorised and viewed. It considers various components of this marketing practice that organisations use, citing thriving e-commerce companies, like Amazon, while the opportunities and threats are also examined. The essay concludes that virtually all organisations, even in tradition-oriented marketing companies in the Czech Republic, can employ viral marketing as a productive organisational tool. This essay discusses the various components of viral marketing, such as buzz advertising, word-of-mouth, e-communications, and others, in order to show how viral marketing really works. This essay examines the appeal of viral marketing and the problems linked to viral marketing efforts. With a consideration of how the opportunities and threats of a viral marketing vary from those of a traditional method, the essay discusses why viral marketing is an appropriate tool for organisations in the Czech Republic. This essay reviews viral marketing a nd argues that it is created so that promotional materials and messages will be spread quickly in a cost-effective way. It thoroughly described different major components for a productive viral marketing technique. *images taken from Google pictures Thesis Statement: Because of the remarkable growth in e-communications, such as mobile phones and the Internet, viral marketing have become an important component of the marketing communications strategy in numerous organisations. Buzz advertising, word-of-mouth, e-mail direct marketing, wireless or mobile advertising, and online advertising and promotions are useful strategies to strengthen and improve viral marketing communications instruments. Viral marketing can improve awareness, enhance customer response, motivate product trial, and build brand equities. The natural interactivity of viral marketing grants them a powerful position in marketing communications strategy. Undoubtedly, in the future the role of viral marketing will becom e increasingly essential, and new media and technologies will come out. Yet, marketers should always bear in mind that a new media and technology can only be effective when potential customers are capable of and eager to use, accept, and understand it in their buying preferences. Indeed, viral marketing is just beginning to be recognised in the Czech Republic, although it is certainly the suggested and chosen standard in current marketing practice and communications. Understanding of the theory and discipline of viral marketing is now a matter of rigorous and wide-ranging research as there is a great deal of information about it. I. Introduction This dissertation will discuss the theoretical and practical features of viral marketing and review several of the methods and successful campaigns that have sped up the recognition of connected marketing. A brief discussion on the development of viral marketing in Czech Republic will be presented in the concluding part of the paper. Viral m arketing, particularly when applied in an integrated manner, can both enhance brand awareness and develop brand support (Arndt, 1967). And it is a quite cost-effective way of marketing, even for product, brand, or service that has no ‘memorable’ or ‘buzz’ (Brown, Barry, Dacin & Gunst, 2005) features. There are some people, when reflecting on marketing research, tend to visualise research instead of marketing itself. In fact, marketing research is officially identified as locating and

The Smartphone Industry Analysis 2012 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Smartphone Industry Analysis 2012 - Essay Example (Cromar, 2010) The smartphone market is characterized by perpetual innovation and constant new product development. No one company has considerable market share so all the companies are constantly evolving technology in order to remain competitive and not to be driven out. (Brownlow, 2012) Smartphones and tablets have very short product life-cycle due to constant improvement in technology, aggressive pricing and rapid imitation. The barriers to entry in this industry are very high due to patents, high start-up cost, regulations and economies of scale. In the smartphone industry there are many drivers which deliver success and in order to stay in business and maximize value for the company it is important to know what factors guide the company towards excellence. The smartphone industry is very fleeting, therefore companies need to be on their feet and constant research and development is needed to come up with the most innovative features that would appeal to consumers. This should b e in line with the market demand, but innovation is a key competitive force in the smart phone industry. Secondly, the product needs to be reliable and should deliver on its promises. Having a reasonable battery life is important along with good reception. This would make the consumer brand loyal if their expectations are met. Also, good customer support service is mandatory to be competitive. Thirdly, the product created needs to expandable such that it allows third party applications to run and is not very restrictive in nature. Timely software updates also reinforce a brand’s image. Another competitive force would be that the product should be user friendly, and the interface should be designed in order to facilitate consumers and should not be time consuming. Lastly for a company to remain competitive they should have great financial capability in order to respond to the fleeting market demand and have the finance for product development shifts, marketing and acquisitions as well. (Gartner, 2010) One of the best ways of evaluating the attractiveness of an industry and gauging its performance is through the Michael Porter's five force model. This model ensures that a holistic analysis is performed which considers all the possible threats and provides a true picture of the external environment of an industry. The industry according to this model is quite profitable as only two threats are strong and can be removed via good coordination. The smartphone industry is marked with the threat of rival sellers. All the major competitors have pretty much the same strategy and use innovation to excel and make promising products. Also, these companies are financially strong and stable and have immense budgets for promotional campaigns and intense research and development. Another common feature of this industry is the greater ability for acquisitions which dirty dig the share quickly off the android. Because the industry is progressing at a fast rate, some shift ing in market share without long term results can exist. (Analysys Mason, 2012) The threat of new entrants is moderate because the barriers to entry are many. The global distribution of technology is limited to the leading technology companies and they have patented their hall of fame products. The only

Physical Education and Academic Achievement Research Proposal

Physical Education and Academic Achievement - Research Proposal Example Students shall be divided into two groups: A physical education class and an academic-oriented class. This division shall occur for both 7th and 8th classes which indicate that there shall be four groups. Each group shall be compared from each other thru instruments detailed in later sections. The groups shall be observed weekly and shall be made to undergo a Physical Fitness Test immediately followed by Academic tests. Expected time frame is 3 months. In effect, the data shall provide two results: 1) whether exposure or non-exposure to physical education affects academic performance and 2) how the intensity of physical activity itself affects academic performance Covariant data shall be constructed for fifth categories. First is the family income where students shall be classified into families having $20000, $20001-60000, $60001-75000 and >$75000. These categories are based on National Statistical Socio Demographic profile which attaches corresponding ability to provide for educational materials with the amount of annual income. Second is the child's ethnicity where the participants shall be classified as: a) White, non-Hispanic, b) Black, non-Hispanic, c) Hispanic and d) other. Third is the previous academic background and performance. Fourth is the any additional educational support system specifically the amount of time a mother devotes to educate their children. The last is the amount of physical activity that the student experiences outside of the school. All data for these categories shall be obtained from parents, guardians and the students themselves. Classroom teachers shall be enlisted to produce reports regarding the number of times that students participated in physical education. The reporting process shall be from 0 (never) to the number of times like 3 times per day. Correspondingly, the teachers shall also indicate the total minutes per day that the sample population were engaged in physical education activities. It shall start from 0 with increments of 15 minutes (1-15, 16-30 with the last choice being >60). The data shall be categorized and labelled as low (0-30 minutes per week), medium (30-60 minutes per week) and high (70-300 minutes per week). At the end of every week, the students shall be made to undergo a Physical Fitness Test (PFT) in the morning and an Academics test in the afternoon. The PFT seeks to identify six aspects of fitness namely: 1) body composition, 2) aerobic capacity, 3) trunk strength, 4) abdominal strength, 5) flexibility and 6) upper body strength. These were chosen because it represents the intensity of physical development that the student has experienced. These data shall be compared with previous physical fitness examinations to fully determine the intensity of physical activity in consonance with the data generated from teacher-provided reports. For the academic tests, consultations shall be made with education authorities and other established education researchers regarding the appropriate content to be administered to the students. It shall also be determined whether test content that has been previously applied in other published studies such as that of Carlson et al (2008) can be adapted. In general, the subjects shall include science, mathematics, linguistics and world studies. In summary, we have four sets of data per group: 1) Physical education exposure, 2) Physical activity intensity and condition, 3) Covariates and 4) Academic

Proposal to Cease Testing Blood Donations for CMV

Proposal to Cease Testing Blood Donations for CMV Status Public Executive summary (200 words) In response to SaBTO recommendations for replacing CMV seronegative cellular blood components with leucodepleted blood components, an implementation project has been established pending approval from the Board. The proposed implementation date of January 2018 is considered a realist timeframe for this approach. Communication with clinicians indicates the acceptance of leucodepleted components as CMV safe, replacing the selection of CMV seronegative components. Information has been obtained regarding international practices and use of leucodepletion with respect to CMV. This paper sets out key information on the proposed replacement of CMV seronegative blood products with leucodepleted blood products, provides recommendations of the optimal strategy to achieve this, and takes into consideration patient groups that may be affected. Action requested (bulleted list) The Board is asked to: Note the implementation plans for the introduction of CMV safe blood products Approve the proposal to cease production of all CMV seronegative blood products that undergo leucodepletion and consider these products as CMV safe Approve the proposal to continue the production of CMV seronegative red cell and platelet components for intra-uterine transfusions and neonates Approve the proposal to continue the production of CMV seronegative granulocyte components for CMV seronegative patients Approve the proposal to continue the production of CMV seronegative blood components for seronegative and seropositive pregnant women that require transfusions throughout pregnancy Agree the recommendation to continue to implement CMV PCR as a screening method for early detection for all haemopoietic stem cell and solid organ transplant recipients Purpose of paper (1 paragraph) For over 30 years, there has been an ongoing debate regarding the use of CMV seronegative blood components versus the use of leucodepleted blood components. To date, the use of CMV seronegative blood products has been implemented to reduce the risk of transfusion-transmitted cytomegalovirus in patients considered at risk. Leucodepletion has been performed on all blood products in the UK since 1999. This paper provides an overview on the use of CMV seronegative blood products in comparison to the use of leucodepleted blood components. This paper provides an assessment of patient groups that are considered at risk of CMV and considers advantages to ceasing of CMV testing in the UK. Background Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a pervasive, cell-associated prototypic virus that is a member of the betaherpesvirus subfamily (Ziemann and Hennig, 2014; Ljungman, 2004). CMV mostly causes asymptomatic infection or mononucleosis-like-infection in an immunocompetent host; however, in an immunocompromised host it can result in chronic and persistent infection with devastating outcomes (Seed et al., 2015). Patient groups that are considered at risk of life-threatening transfusion-transmitted CMV infection includes CMV seronegative patients undergoing haematopoietic stem cell transplantation and solid organ transplantation, low birth weight and premature neonates, foetuses that require intrauterine transfusion, CMV seronegative pregnant women, and highly immunocompromised patients, such as those with malignant disease (Ziemann and Hennig, 2014; SaBTO, 2012). CMV infection is frequently encountered throughout childhood and an estimated 50 60% of the adult population in the United Kingdom (UK) are CMV positive (SaBTO, 2012). CMV infection can be transmitted both horizontally and vertically (Crough and Kannah, 2009). Horizontal transmission occurs through contact with body fluids, such as urine and saliva, sexually through genital secretions, blood transfusion, and hematopoietic stem cell and organ transplant (SaBTO, 2012; Sia and Patel, 2000). Vertical transmission occurs from mother to child, via delivery and breast milk (Crough and Kannah, 2009). Additionally, congenital CMV infection is highly prevalent and may arise through a primary maternal infection during pregnancy (Crough and Kannah, 2009). Following exposure to CMV and the initial infection, the virus remains in a dormant state (Ljungman, 2004). Seroconversion of the host occurs between 6 8 weeks and mounts an immune response, producing CMV specific immunoglobulin (IgG) (Seed et al., 2014). In the UK, there is an estimated seroconversion rate of 1% per annum (SaBTO, 2012). CMV therefore has a window period, in which there may be underlying viremia and high viral load (Liberman et al., 2011). Subsequently, a CMV seropositive individual is considered to have been infected, whilst at the same time considered potentially infectious due to the life-long persistence of the virus (SaBTO, 2012). Transfusion-transmitted CMV infection is regarded as a potential threat to the safety and sufficiency of the blood supply for a multitude of reasons (Roback, 2002). Firstly, transfusion-transmission of CMV that is present in blood and blood components can result in the infection of naà ¯ve recipients (Ziemann and Hennig, 2014; Ljungman, 2004). Secondly, transfusion-transmitted CMV is acknowledged as a primary source of infection, in which donor infectivity is an underlying reason, that may result in CMV disease (Ljungman, 2004). Thirdly, CMV seropositive recipients that are exposed to blood products containing CMV may cause reactivation of the latent virus or reinfection from a new strain (Ziemann and Hennig, 2014; Ljungman, 2004). However, the risk of transfusion-transmitted CMV infection has been significantly reduced through the implementation of leucodepletion and production of specific CMV negative blood and blood products (Ziemann and Hennig, 2014). Since November 1999, all blood products (unless state otherwise) produced by the UK blood service are leucodepleted (Guidelines for the Blood Transfusion Services in the United Kingdom, 2013). Initially, this was a response taken to reduce the risk of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob (vCJD) disease in blood transfusions; however, this risk reduction strategy has proven beneficial in additional areas of transfusion science and blood safety (Guidelines for the Blood Transfusion Services in the United Kingdom, 2013). The UK specification for leucodepletion is: more than 90% of leucocyte-depleted components should contain less than 1 x 106 leucocytes and more than 99% of components should contain less than 5 x 106 leucocytes (SaBTO, 2012). The specification for 99% of components is regarded as the level in which blood components are deemed CMV safe (SaBTO, 2012). Leucodepletion has considerably reduced the risk of transfusion-transmitted CMV, to a level that mirrors the selection of CMV negative blood products (Ljungman, 2004; Bowden et al., 1995). However, it has yet to be shown to what extent the techniques are comparable and how this may affect patient groups considered at risk of CMV infection (Ljungman, 2004). It is important to note that whilst leucodepletion removes most white cells from blood products, it is not 100% effective (Kumar, 2006). Therefore, there is a residual risk of CMV transmission in blood products of recently infected donors (Kumar, 2006). This occurs in the window period of the virus from 6 8 weeks to 1 year following seroconversion, in which the virus may be present in the remaining plasma or white cells (SaBTO, 2012; Ziemann et al., 2010; Drew and Roback, 2007). CMV transmission can occur in both donors that have an active infection, including primary or reactivated, or latent infection (Azevedo, 2015). The leading mechanism of transfusion-transmitted CMV infection is through mononuclear cells that are believed to harbour a latent infection (Ljungman, 2004). CMV is thought to persist in circulating monocytes, in which an estimated 1 in 10,000 and 1 in 100,000 peripheral blood monocular cells carry CMV (SaBTO, 2012). Pennington et al (2001) conducted a study that provided evidence to suggest that leucodepletion filters are highly effective in removing mononuclear cells and may reduce CMV levels to 0.1 viral copies per mL in leucodepleted blood. Furthermore, blood products that have been leucodepleted are monitored continuously, using flow cytometry, to assess efficiency (SaBTO, 2012). Moreover, the prospect of having a component issued that contains a leucocyte count above the UK specification can be calculated (SaBTO, 2012). In regards to testing for transfusion-transmitted CMV, there are two main methods that are used. This includes serological testing and Nucleic Acid Technology (NAT) testing (SaBTO, 2012). Serological testing involves the use of antibody screening which is accomplished through the use of enzyme immunoassay (EIA) tests that detect total CMV antibody (Ross, 2011). Screening for CMV infection using serology is the most prevalent method used and is based on the agglutination principle (Ross, 2011; Ljungman, 2004). The method offers several advantages as it is fast, highly sensitive, and highly specific, constituting an ideal screening test (Ross, 2011). This method, however, is associated with two key limitations. Firstly, the window period presents a challenge in regards to activation of the primary infection and seroconversion (Ljungman, 2004). Secondly, there is a risk of obtaining false negative screening results (Ljungman, 2004). Therefore, there is a risk that CMV may be transmitted via a CMV seronegative component (SaBTO, 2012). In addition to serology, NAT testing is used to detect CMV DNA and subsequent infection (Ross, 2011). Several qualitative and quantitative assays are available for this method (SaBTO, 2012). This screening method is associated with variation in the sensitivity and specificity of available assays (Roback et al., 2003;2001). Studies have highlighted inter-laboratory variation for samples containing low viral load (Pang et al, 2009; Wolff et al., 2009). As a result, a CMV DNA reference has been developed for comparison of results when sensitivity is a challenge (Ross, 2011). To produce a supply of CMV negative blood and blood components, several donations are screened each year. Overall, an estimated 25 40% of donors are CMV antibody positive, dependent on age. The production and use of CMV negative blood components forms a significant undertaking for the blood service. According to the report released by the Advisory Committee on the Safety of Blood, Tissues, and Organs (SaBTO) in March 2012, in the last 5 years, the number of CMV negative platelets and red cells has increased. The report notes that NHSBT charge  £7.76 for CMV negative red cells and platelets, covering the inventory and screening costs. This amounts to a total of  £2.5 million per annum, in which  £230,000 is dedicated to apheresis platelets and  £2,270,000 to red cells. The number of donations that are screened is greater than the number of donations that are issued as CMV negative. In addition, not all donations screened will deliver a negative result. Subsequently, it has been proposed that the use and production of CMV negative components is reviewed. SaBTO recommends the use of a single inventory and accepting leucodepleted blood products as CMV safe. This is outlined in section 6. Proposal 6.1 This proposal has been written to ask the blood centre to consider ceasing CMV testing for an agreed list of blood products and in its replacement, support the use of leucodepleted blood components that are considered CMV safe. 6.2 The proposal of ceasing CMV testing for the replacement of leucodepleted components that are considered CMV safe is associated with several advantages. Inventory management Management of a single inventory would offer an advantage to blood banks and hospitals. This would be a preferred method to the current used for ease of access. NHSBT must ensure CMV negative components are available across the country on multiple NHS sites. To achieve this, NHSBT spend approximately  £95,000 n the delivery of CMV negative components. Wastage The Belgian Blood Service have produced a report that states implementation of pathogen reduction in platelets to inactivate CMV may result in an overall decrease in the wastage of platelets. A 1.5% reduction is estimated, which would result in a saving of  £0.22 million. Improved compliance with safety initiatives Reduction in the wastage of blood products and implementation of a single inventory would enable the target of 80% platelets by apheresis to be met sooner. Furthermore, this would support transfusion related acute lung injury (TRALI) prevention, as the number of male platelet donors would increase due to enhanced recruitment strategies. This would further enable costs of HLA antibody screening of potential female platelet donors to be avoided. Reduction in hospital blood bank workload Because of the removal of CMV seronegative components, the workload in hospitals and blood banks would decrease. Staff would no longer have to spend time ordering or checking platelets as CMV negative components. This would have a direct positive impact on the stock management. Staff that may potentially be free from the responsibility associated with CMV negative products will be able to invest their time elsewhere, to improve the efficiency of the blood service. Reduction in clinical errors The Serious Hazards of Transfusion (SHOT) have reported from 2000 to 2010, 1040 reports were filed stating special requirements were not met. Of these, 83 were attributed to the inappropriate selection of blood components that were not CMV negative. 65 were attributed to selection of blood components that were both CMV negative and irradiated components. However, none of these cases reported CMV transmission. 6.3 The proposed implementation date of this project is January 2018. Further clinical guidance is to be requested from SaBTO who will instruct in the implementation plan of this proposal. 6.4 Consideration must be given to specific patient groups that are considered at risk of CMV infection. This includes: Haematopoietic stem cell transplant patients Leucodepleted blood products can be used for all patient groups post haemopoietic stem cell transplantation Patients receiving transfusions and may need a transplant also may receive leucodepleted products CMV PCR should be used to assess CMV infection for patient groups to enable early detection and treatment Intra-uterine transfusions and neonates CMV negative components should be provided for intra-uterine transfusions and neonates (up to 28 days post expected due date) All blood products produced at a reduce size for neonates should be CMV seronegative Pregnant patients CMV seronegative blood products should be provided to pregnancy women, regardless of CMV status. Components should also be provided for transfusions throughout pregnancy, for example in the case of haemoglobinopathies. HIV and immunodeficient patients These patients should receive leucodepleted blood as there is no evidence to suggest a benefit with the use of CMV seronegative components Organ transplant patients Organ transplant patients should receive leucodepleted blood only CMV PCR should be used to assess CMV infection for patient groups to enable early detection and treatment Granulocytes Granulocyte components provided should be CMV seronegative for all patients as these components cannot be leucodepleted 6.5 Potential impact on blood centre employees includes the reduction in workload. Considerations needs to be given towards how this workload can be replaced. Consideration also needs to be given towards the possibility of redundancy, as a successive effect of this proposal. 6.6 The board must be aware of the clinical and financial benefits of this proposal; however, the board should also be aware of potential limitations regarding the operation of the proposal. The board should also be aware of potential legal repercussions should someone become infected with CMV through a blood component. 6.7 Stakeholders that will need to be involved include both internal and external. Internal stakeholders will include the manager of the NHSBT site and the head of testing. External stake holders will need to raise public awareness regarding the change in production of seronegative CMV components. Doctors will also need to be aware of the changes implemented to CMV negative components and be aware of who this applies for. E.g. certain patient groups will still receive CMV seronegative components. References A. Ross, S., Novak, Z., Pati, S. and B. Boppana, S. (2011). Overview of the Diagnosis of Cytomegalovirus Infection. Infectious Disorders Drug Targets, 11(5), pp.466-474. Azevedo, L., Pierrotti, L., Abdala, E., Costa, S., Strabelli, T., Campos, S., Ramos, J., Latif, A., Litvinov, N., Maluf, N., Caiaffa Filho, H., Pannuti, C., Lopes, M., Santos, V., Linardi, C., Yasuda, M. and Marques, H. (2015). Cytomegalovirus infection in transplant recipients. Clinics, 70(7), pp.515-523. Crough, T. and Khanna, R. (2009). Immunobiology of Human Cytomegalovirus: from Bench to Bedside. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 22(1), pp.76-98. DOH UK, (2012). SaBTO Report of Cytomegalovirus Tested Blood Components, Position Statement. [online] pp.1 15. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/215125/dh_133086.pdf [Accessed 13 Mar. 2017]. Drew, W. and Roback, J. (2007). Prevention of transfusion-transmitted cytomegalovirus: reactivation of the debate? Transfusion, 47(11), pp.1955-1958. 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